Cultural Interview Cultural Informant Interview

Cultural Informant Interview My cultural informant was a friend who I have known for about six and a half years, Lisa. Lisa’s sister, Liya, and I became close friends during my freshman year of college. Liya, two other girls, and I became roommates from sophomore year through senior year. Lisa is a year younger than me, so I met her during my sophomore year. Liya and Lisa were international students from Ethiopia, so they often spent holidays and breaks with my family and I. The three of us became close during our college years, and I had the opportunity to visit them in Ethiopia in the summer of 2015. Liya is currently living in Ethiopia; therefore, I am not able to speak with her as frequently as Lisa; however, modern technology does†¦show more content†¦While I do agree that my family is filled with women who seek careers, I do believe that women in my family still held a stronger role in taking care of the children and home than the men. For example, my mom and aunts often talk about how they were the ones to take off work when a child was sick as opposed to the child’s father. Lisa did mention how my female cousins and I all talk about how we want our significant others to play a stronger family role. During my undergraduate career, I had many interests, and I was not sure what career path was best; therefore, I majored in mathematics and psychology. Lisa mentioned that my interest in STEM fields was possibly due to the wide variety of careers my aunts pursued. Lisa felt like that I knew that these careers would be challenging, but I did not let gender stereotypes hold me back. While I agree that by the time I got to college, I sought to choose a career based on my interests and not social standards of gender, I was not always this way as a child. Growing up, I was strong in science and math, but I struggled with reading. My third grade teacher told me, â€Å"Girls are good at reading. They hate math.† At that point, I thought something was wrong with me, because I liked math and not reading. I also tended to play more with boys and preferredShow MoreRelatedAnthropology, Ethnography, And Ethnology1568 Words   |  7 Pagescultures they are studying.Ethnography gathers its cultural information through fieldwork often spending many years on and off(Lenkeit 2011:6) A ethnographers goal is to observe every aspect of a society or culture they are researching, while also seeking immersion into that culture, in order to experience the culture in its entirety. Anthropologist Napoleon Chagnon lived with the Yanomomo peoples of Venezuela for years. Participa ting in cultural rituals, living and eating with them(Video). ChagnonRead MoreQuestions On The Survey Questionnaires Essay1469 Words   |  6 Pagesquestioning is to allow the informant provide more details to some closed-ended questions that may need further elaborations. The questionnaires will be organized in six modules. 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With additional research, the underlying factors of the emergence of terrorism in Muslim societies will be shown to not be religionRead MoreThe Media s Sense Of Identity And Culture.the Project Is Part Of A Third Year Media Studies Course Essay2493 Words   |  10 Pagesis part of a third year Media Studies Course, MDIA 310 Cultural Identity and the Media at Victoria University of Wellington and is coordinated by Joost de Bruin, a Senior Lecturer at this university, each student in the class has undertaken the same research process. We were required to conduct two interviews with individuals we had never met before using a topic list provided to us by Dr. de Bruin, the aim, was not to test the informants use of online news, but rather provide them with an opportunityRead MoreEvaluation Of A Research Study789 Words   |  4 Pagesare important for several reasons. 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The main learning process doesn’t occur in school, but according to Leigh (1998) happens from information that the contrasting cultural group or individual teaches the social workerRead MoreQualitative Research : Research Methods1166 Words   |  5 Pagesparticipants. This introduces a range of strategic, ethical, and personal issues into the qualitative research process† (p.187). The unique issues that researchers should be concerned about in regards to their role in research can be an aspect of cultural anthropology which occurs in natural setting, â€Å"where human behavior and events occur, providing social order, structure and stability for individuals and groups of people† (Creswell, 2014, p 189. Ethical considerations should always be a priorityRead MoreQualitative Research : Research Methods1219 Words   |  5 Pagesparticipants. This introduces a range of strategic, ethical, and personal issues into the qualitative research process† (p.187). The unique issues the researchers should worry about in regards to their own roles in research can be an aspect of cultural anthropology, which occurs in natural setting, â€Å"where human behavior and events occur, providing social order, structure and stability for individuals and groups of people† (Creswell, 2014, p 189. Ethical considerations should always be a priorityRead MoreAn Application For Ethical Approval1129 Words   |  5 Pagesprocesses required me to provide detailed descriptions of how information would be collected, stored and shared. I collected data with semi-directed interviews. The questions were open, allowing knowledge holders to share information in a manner that best suited the. I wrote responses into notes, and where consent was granted, recorded audio. I conducted interviews with knowledge holders selected by the communities themselves. Knowledge holders remain anonymous in this dissertation at the communities’ requestRead MoreInterview Reflection Paper846 Words   |  4 PagesFor my interview reflection paper, I decided to listen to the NPR’s interview with Oliver Sacks, â€Å"A Neurologist at the ‘Intersection of Fact and Fable.† Terry Gross had the opportunity to interview him in regard to his book, â€Å"Hallucinations,† which elaborates on patients who had hallucinations as a result of numerous different causes, including medications and injuries. Gross also asked him personal questions that pertained to his own experiences with recreational drugs and being a neurologist. Therefore

Analysis of Macbeth Essay - 912 Words

Analysis of Macbeth Macbeth, is one of the greatest tragedy plays written by William Shakespeare. It is a rather short play with a major plot that we had to follow it carefully to understand its significance. The play is a tragedy about evil rising to power, which ends up corrupting the main characters Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. In the opening of the play Macbeth is introduced to the audience as Thane of Glamis and is respected. The witches also play a major part in the play, as they predict the future. Macbeth moves his way on up to Thane of Cowdor for his bravery in the battle. At first, Macbeth did not believe in the witches’ prophecies as he was told to be crowned king; however he’s†¦show more content†¦2.1. 23-24). With Banquo’s knowledge of the witches’ prophecy makes him both a possible ally and threat to Macbeth’s plotting. Now that Macbeth seems distrustful of Banquo, it introduces a conflict especially with the appearance of Fleance, reminding Mac beth of the witches’ prediction that Banquo’s children will sit on the throne of Scotland. We realize that if Macbeth succeeds in the murder of Duncan, he will be driven to still more violence before his crown is secure, and Fleance will be in immediate and mortal danger. Following this discussion, when Macbeth is left alone an imagery soliloquy appears into the scene. As Macbeth is getting ready for the deed to be performed, we read: â€Å"Is this a dagger which I see before me,/ the handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee† (Macbeth. 2.1. 40-41). When reading this, we realize that Macbeth has a vision of a dagger floating in the air before him, its handle pointing toward his hand and its tip aiming him toward king Duncan indicating that he will go through the killing of Duncan. With all of this happening, the plot begins to advance. Up until this scene, everything was being planned by Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, but no actions were taken yet. Adding tensi on to this scene advanced the plot because Lady Macbeth must signal Macbeth about the right time to enter the king’sShow MoreRelatedMacbeth Analysis1293 Words   |  6 Pages Sigmund Freud displayed heavy interest in Shakespeare’s Macbeth (Holland 66). Just like Freud, multiple psychoanalysts explore Macbeth’s mental state. William Shakespeare’s tragedy, Macbeth, develops a character who begins as a soldier and becomes a corrupted leader. Readers of Macbeth begin to notice the psychological deterioration of Macbeth as he gains more power. Rollo May, a writer and existential psychologist, distinguishes the five levels of intrapsychic power levels. May argues that theRead MoreMacbeth s Character Analysis : Macbeth1086 Words   |  5 PagesMacbeth s Character Analysis Shakespeare presents Macbeth as a noble thane of King Duncan in the beginning of the play. 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Making the World a Better Place Philosophy 1001, Dr. Cara Nine Free Essays

Making the World a Better Place Philosophy 1001, Dr. Cara Nine ‘Better Place’? ‘Making the world†¦ ’? Making the world a better place There are two sets of philosophical questions: 1. What is ‘good’ or ‘better’? (That is, what does a ‘better world look like and why? ) 2. We will write a custom essay sample on Making the World a Better Place Philosophy 1001, Dr. Cara Nine or any similar topic only for you Order Now What kinds of actions are ‘right’? (What are we justified in doing to bring about the good? ) Ideas of the good life Hedonism Desire Satisfaction Theory Objective Goods Theory Theories of Right Action Utilitarian Deontological Feminist Virtue Theory Cases Protesting Unjust Government Aiding an impoverished community Torture Letter to Menoeceus By Epicurus (341-270 BC) Epicurus ‘Hedonism’ in popular culture http://www. hedonism. com/ Hedonism: Different kinds of desires. Just to be clear†¦ â€Å"It is not an unbroken succession of drinking-bouts and of merrymaking, not sexual love, not the enjoyment of the fish and other delicacies of a luxurious table†¦ † For Hedonism: â€Å"For the end of all our actions is to be free from pain and fear† Intrinsic vs. Instrumental goods Instrumental good Intrinsic Good For Epicurus, Happiness is secured by: A tranquil emotional state. Example: We should not fear death Evidence : Misery clearly hampers the good life; happiness clearly improves it. But, is happiness what we want for our loved ones? I recall a talk by a doctor who described a patient of his (who had perhaps had a prefrontal lobotomy) as ‘perfectly happy all day long picking up leaves. ’ This impressed me because I thought, ‘Well, most of us are not happy all day long doing the things we do,’ and realized how strange it would be to think that the very kindest of fathers would arrange such an operation for his (perfectly normal) child. –Philippa Foot, Natural Goodness, p. 65 Desire Theory and Problems with Hedonism Hedonism Happiness is the only intrinsically valuable good. A happy life is a good life. The argument from evil pleasures Hedonism’s response: Happiness from evil actions IS as good as happiness from virtuous actions. The Paradox of Hedonism Happiness is like a butterfly—the more you pursue it, the more it eludes you. Be still and let it come to you. Paradox of Hedonism 1. If happiness is the only thing that directly makes us better off, then it is rational to single-mindedly pursue it. 2. It isn’t rational to do that. 3. Therefore, happiness isn’t the only thing that directly makes us better off. Argument from multiple harms: If hedonism is true, then you can be harmed by something only because it saddens you. You can be harmed in other ways. Therefore, hedonism is false. False Happiness Nozick’s Experience Machine Experience Machine Nozick thinks that the real life is clearly better, despite equal levels of happiness. What makes the real life better? Desires and The good We desire for our lives to be based in reality. This desire matters. Other desires matter, too. Desire Satisfaction Theory The good life is getting what you want. Something is good for you if and only if it satisfies your desires. Good things about desire-satisfaction theory Allows for a variety of ‘good’ lives. Good things about desire-satisfaction theory Prioritizes personal autonomy and avoids paternalism Avoids objective values â€Å"objective† = fixed independently of your desires and opinions â€Å"subjective† = refers to your desires and opinions Motivation? Problems with the Desire Satisfaction Theory Getting what you want may not promote your good Desires based on false beliefs Fix! The desire must be based on informed beliefs. More Problems Dis-interested or Other-regarding desires Problems, cont. Disappointment: I was playing great tennis†¦ I’d finally taken my game to what felt like a notch above all my opponents’. It should have been great†¦ But it wasn’t. It felt hollow—It reminded me of the story of King Midas: My success wasn’t translating into happiness. –John McEnroe—(with James Kaplan, You Cannot be Serious) Impoverished Desires Objective Goods Theories of the Good Life Hedonism Desire Satisfaction Theory Objective Goods Theory Objective Goods Theory What is good is defined independent of your desires or opinions. Objective well-being concept: Income? The objective/universal approach defended Nussbaum’s approach http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=Qy3YTzYjut4 Appeals to ‘natural law theory’, that things are good when a thing fulfills its nature. Things are bad when they are unnatural. Solves (? ) Hume’s argument We can know only two sorts of claims: conceptual truths or empirical truths. Moral claims are neither conceptual nor empirical truths. Therefore, we can have no moral knowledge. Natural law theory’s response: If you know the nature of ‘human’, and what it takes to fulfil our human nature, then we can know what is morally good. Options for objective goods: Happiness Options for objective goods: Autonomy Relationship with other objective goods. Essence of ‘human’ Possible problem with adding autonomy to the list: Cultural variations. But Do we have to be culturally relative? Options for objective goods: A sense of self Having commitments, likes and dislikes, values and goals. Options for objective goods: Morality Aristotelian virtue Human flourishing– â€Å"If you concern yourself not at all with what you owe to others or with what they need from you, you live in profound isolation. .. Morality is good for us because it †¦ gives me a kind of friendship not just with my friends but with everyone. † (Kazez 54) Martha Nussbaum: Basic capabilities. Life. Bodily health Bodily integrity. Senses, imagination, thought. Emotions. Practical reason. Affiliation. Other species. Play. Control over one’s environment. Possible problem with the objective theory†¦ Utilitarianism Theories of Right Action What should I do or not do? Utilitarianism A brand of consequentialism An action is morally required just because it produces the best results. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) Utilitarianism (1861) The quest for ‘the good’ is identified with the question of what is right and wrong to do. Mill writes: â€Å"All action is for the sake of some end and rules of action, it seems natural to suppose, must take their whole character and color from the end to which they are subservient. â€Å" (in other words†¦ The ends justify the means! ) 1. Rationality in choice of conduct is maximizing the satisfaction of one’s chosen goal (or the goal that is best to pursue). 2. The rational goal of human striving is happiness, and happiness consists in pleasure and the absence of pain. I should do what maximizes happiness-for-me-over-my-entire-life. Acting effectively to achieve this goal is being prudent. Prudence requires a kind of impartiality. So†¦ In merely individualistic terms: Ice cream NOW = 2 units of Happiness, and 3 units of Pain later. To maximize happiness over my entire life, I should not have ice cream now. But Mill’s utilitiarianism is universal project (not individualistic! 3. Human striving 4. The moral goal involves impartiality. One person’s good counts the same, in the determination of what is to be done, as the same-sized good of any other person. 5. The moral goal equals the aggregate happiness of all persons. 6. So, moral rationality demands that we maximize aggregate human happiness . †¦ and animals? Problems†¦ Utility monster: Trolley Problem Trolley Problem Trolley Problem Trolley Problem Deontology Kantian ethics Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) What matters with regard to whether an action is right or wrong is what kind of an action it is. (The end doesn’t justify the means! ) Kantian Deontology Person’s essence = autonomy Autonomy = self+rule Ethical principles follow logically. Consistency and Fairness Equal with regards to our autonomous rational personhood. What if everybody did that? How would you like it if I did that to you? Problem Case If disastrous results would occur if everyone did X, then X is immoral. Redescribe the act? But this makes the morality of an act merely a matter of its description. Kant’s answer: The Categorical Imperative (version 1): Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. Is a maxim universalizable? Formulate your maxim clearly. Imagine a world in which everyone supports and acts on on your maxim. Then ask: Can the goal of my action be achieved in such a world? Example: Lying The universalized maxim of lying generates a contradiction. Categorical Imperative (version 2): The Principle of Humanity Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only. Persons are rational agents The moral law is the law of reason So we rational beings are beyond value since we are the sources of value ‘Means’ only: Used as a means AND respected as rational agent at the same time: problems with the principle of humanity: The notion of treating someone as an end is vague. 2. The principle fails to give us good advice about how to determine what people deserve. – punishment and Lex Talionis (Law of Retaliation) 3. The principle assumes that we are genuinely autonomous, but that assumption may be false. Baron dà ¢â‚¬â„¢Holbach The Argument Against Autonomy 1. Either our choices are necessitated or they are not. 2. If they are necessitated, then they are out of our control, and so we lack autonomy. 3. If they are not necessitated, then they are random, and so we lack autonomy. 4. Therefore, we lack autonomy. 4. The principle cannot explain why those who lack rationality and autonomy are deserving of respect. – What is the scope of the moral community? Argument against animals 1. If the principle of humanity is true, then animals have no rights. 2. If animals lack rights, then it is morally acceptable to torture them. 3. Therefore, if the principle of humanity is true, then it is morally acceptable to torture animals. 4. It isn’t. 5. Therefore, the principle of humanity is false. Feminist Ethics â€Å"The male is by nature superior, and the female inferior; the one rules, and the other is ruled. –Aristotle â€Å"As regards her individual nature, each woman is defective and mis-begotten. † –Aquinas â€Å"[W]omen must be trained to bear the yoke from the first, so that they may not feel it, to master their own caprices and to submit themselves to the will of others. † –Rousseau â€Å"†¦ laborious learning o r painful pondering, even if a woman should greatly succeed in it†¦ They will weaken the charms with which she exercises her great power over the other sex†¦. Her philosophy is not to reason, but to sense. † –Kant Feminist Ethics Previous (male-dominated) philosophy: Made false claims about women. Identified female with nature/animals and male with reason/human. Ignored female experiences and perspectives. Un Chien Andalou , 1929 silent surrealist short film by the Spanish director Luis Bunuel and artist Salvador Dali General Approach: Women are the moral equals of men. â€Å"The right to life of women in Pakistan is conditional on their obeying social norms and traditions. †Ã¢â‚¬â€œHina Jilani, lawyer and human rights activist 2. Experiences of women deserve our respect and are vital to a full and accurate understanding of morality. Some statistics: Women’s nominal wages are 17 percent lower than men’s. Women perform 66 percent of the world’s work, produce 50 percent of the food, but earn 10 percent of the income and own 1 percent of the property. 3. Traits that have traditionally been associated with women are at least as morally important as traditionally masculine traits. 4. Cooperation, flexibility, openness to competing ideas, and a connectedness to family and friends, are often superior to ways of reasoning that emphasize impartiality, abstraction, and strict adherence to rules. Lawrence Kohlberg’s 6 stages of moral development: Moral Development: Gilligan Women fared poorly on Kohlberg’s model. Advancing to only around stage 3. ) Women tend to think and experience the world differently than men. Gilligan’s model or moral thinking: In A Different Voice Women’s Experience Justice is†¦. blind Dr. Denis Mukwege tries to restore dignity in Congo. Women’s Experience: Vulnerability to Rape Major-General Patrick Cammaert, former commande r of UN peacekeeping forces in the eastern Congo: â€Å"It has probably become more dangerous to be a woman than a soldier in armed conflict. † Perceptions of rape in war: From: something that is inevitable when men are deprived of female companionship for prolonged periods To: an actual tactic in conflict. Effect on victim: Rape is always torture. Women’s Experience Increased dependence and diminished autonomy. Fewer choices and less control over important aspects of their lives (than men). Central fact of most women’s lives is their dependence. Consider a moral assumption: stand up for our rights and defend our honour against attacks: Does a woman stand up to an abusive husband, knowing she may be killed, have her children taken away from her, not know where her next meal will come from? Not just women We all are deeply connected with others. Moral philosophy that pretends that we are fully autonomous beings without dependent relationships fail to take an important part of human life into account. Ethics of Care Importance of Emotions â€Å"Reason is a slave of the passions. † –David Hume Motivates. Helps us Understand (Sympathy/Empathy) Care: combination of sympathy, empathy, sensitivity, and love. Particular vs. Universal Describes our obligations. Particular obligations = I have them only to particular people. Universal obligations = I have them to all persons. A strict version of Ethics of Care theory denies the existence of universal obligations. Ethics of Care: Moral obligations come from RELATIONSHIPS. Relationship roles will sometimes require of you conflicting actions. There is no easy formula. Problems with the Ethics of Care: Must be supplemented by other theories. Or risk restricting the scope of the moral community too much. Role of emotions needs further exploration. Downgrading impartiality has its costs. Review Theories of ‘The Right’ Utilitarianism Theory Pleasure/freedom from pain is the only intrinsic good. An action is morally required just because it produces the best results. Rationality Impartiality Maximize human happiness Utilitarianism Positives Intuitive Matches good with the right Equality Useful for social policy Utilitarianism Negatives Utility monster Animals? Conflicts with Justice Deontology Theory (Study of Duty) The end doesn’t justify the means Derived from Autonomy (self + rule) Deontology Categorical Imperative 1: Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. Deontology Categorical Imperative 2, The Principle of Humanity: Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only. Deontology Positives Explains duties of justice Clear rules Equality Intuitive Deontology Negatives Principles difficult to apply Problems with autonomy Scope? Feminism Theory Men and women are moral equals. All of human experience deserves our attention/respect. ‘Feminine traits’ are as morally relevant as ‘male traits’ Interpersonal ways of moral reasoning are often superior to abstract, universalized, rule-governed moral reasoning. Care/Relationships Feminism Positives Embraces full account of human experience Can account for interpersonal moral reasoning, dependence. Feminism Negatives Problems with accounts from emotion Downgrades impartiality How to cite Making the World a Better Place Philosophy 1001, Dr. Cara Nine, Papers

Leadership and Management for Nobel Peace Prize - myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theLeadership and Management for Nobel Peace Prize. Answer: Mother Teresa or Saint Teresa of Calcutta was an Albanian-Indian Catholic Nun born in 26th August 1910. Mother Teresa was born in Skopje presently the capital of Masedonia. Mother Teresa lived in Masedonia for about 18 years then she moved to India, where she spent all his life. Mother Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity in 1950, which consists of more than 4500 sisters and was actively part of 133 countries in the year 2012. Mother Teresa worked for the people who were dying of HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Leprosy. The charity work of Mother Teresa aimed at eradicating poverty from the society. Teresa received a number of honours for helping the society, which includes Nobel Peace Prize that she won in 1979 (McBrien, 2015). Mother Teresa has a number of qualities that might have helped her in becoming a good corporate leader. A good corporate leader is characterised by good self-awareness, fairness to all, enthusiasm, integrity, knowledge, decisiveness etc (Du et al., 2013). Mother Teresa has almost every quality in her. The leadership style that Mother Teresa had can be identifies as situational leadership style (Antonakis Day, 2017). She used to take decision or help the people according to their present situation. Mother Teresa made plans for everyone about how to help them and then she implements those plans accordingly. She was understanding, caring and was always ambitious to help the society in whatever way possible. She used to provide enough food, clothing, room for the elderly people, and medicine for the sick people and she made sure that everyone who is in urgent need for help get help from her. Some of the reason why she would have been a good corporate leader is: Determination: She was very much concerned with the increased poverty in India. Her main aim was to eradicate the poverty from the Indian soil. The determination that she had would help her in running an MNC successfully. Effective and inspiring: Mother Teresa not only helped the society by fulfilling the needs of the people but she also inspired many youths to help others for betterment of the society. The inspiring ability that she had would help her in inspiring the employee of the MNCs to work for achieving the goals of the organisation. Courageous: She was courageous and willing to take risks and chances. To run a MNC successfully a corporate leader should always take chances to improve their organisation and mother Teresa had this quality in her. Confident: Mother Teresa was confident about her works and a Corporate Leader of a MNC should be confident about what they are doing. A corporate leader should be aware and confident about each steps and Mother Teresa was very much confident about all the decisions she took. Intelligent: A corporate leader should be intelligent so that they can assess the future of the organisation and should set the goals accordingly. Mother Teresa was intelligent, which was very much evident from his work, this would have helped her in taking effective organisational decisions. The only issue that her leadership style would have come up against is the lack of effective control. Effective controlling of resources and workforce is very necessary in the MNCs, which was not there in Mother Teresas leadership style (Cero, 2018). References: Antonakis, J., Day, D. V. (Eds.). (2017).The nature of leadership. Sage publications. Certo, S. C. (2018).Supervision: Concepts and skill-building. McGraw-Hill Education. Du, S., Swaen, V., Lindgreen, A., Sen, S. (2013). The roles of leadership styles in corporate social responsibility.Journal of business ethics,114(1), 155-169. McBrien, R. P. (2015).Lives of the saints: from Mary and St. Francis of Assisi to John XXIII and Mother Teresa. HarperCollins.

Human Resource Management Practices of the Sydney Hotel Essay Example

Human Resource Management Practices of the Sydney Hotel Essay Background Sydney Hotel is a profit organization which was establish on June 1991 and it was started operate in General Santos City on 1993. For the successive years of operation, there was large number of guest every year that Check in the Hotel. It became a challenge to the president, Charlemagne T Delfino. Sydney Hotel is one of General Santos Citys preferred hotels. The hotel is well-equipped with spacious function rooms for banquets and conferences. Sydney Hotel is a Standard hotel in General Santos City that has comfortable and affordable accommodations.The authorities of the Sydney Hotel see to it that they select the best employees and drive them towards improvements of their competencies and potentials as public servants. The Sydney Hotel follows a series of steps and due processes before undertaking any action towards hiring the most competent employee. The Human Resource Management and Development Office play a big role in governing this process to filter every applicant a nd finally choose the most qualified among all of them. Then comes the training and development for the employees.As humans, the employees have the assurance of their safety and health to be taken care of by the Sydney Hotel. As working individuals, these employees are also entitled to different compensations and benefits to compliment their hard work. After years of service, employees will have to have their career development for attaining greater heights of accomplishments and achievements. These HR Practices are all carried out with the help of the Human Resource Management and Development Office to lead the procedures and have promising results.This study is focused on the Human Resource Management Practices of the Sydney Hotel of General Santos City. The study will show how the procedure is done and what are the different aspects to be considered in every practice. Rationale of the Study This study is conducted to determine the HR Practices of the Sydney Hotel of General Santo s City. This study will tell the Recruitment and Selection, Training and Career Development, Employees Relation, Safety and Health and Employee Discipline.And the legal procedures and how these procedures are carried out. The main purpose of the study is to identify any modifications that should be done for the improvement of the practices to successfully reach the goals of the organization. Objectives †¢Resource Management Practices of the Sydney Hotel of General Santos City. †¢To know the due process of each practice. †¢To know determine the effectively of the practices. †¢To know the persons involved in doing the process. †¢To know quality of the HR practices of the Sydney Hotel. Determine the current performance of Sydney Hotel in terms of the following dimension: Human Resource, Customer Services. Scope and Delimitation This Study is Limited to Sydney Hotel organization Structure, Human Resource, and Customer Services. The analysis of the operation of t he Sydney Hotel was limited only to the following areas: Organization- This aspect refers to the management of the Sydney Hotel. It includes the officers, their functions and responsibilities. Human Resource People who are considered the most exciting challenging resource of any organization.Customer Service is the provision of service to customers before, during and after a purchase. Manager is the person responsible for planning and directing the work of a group of individuals, monitoring their work, and taking corrective action when necessary. This Study Divided into seven chapters†¦. Organization of the Study Chapter 1 is the introduction, which is an exposition of the current situation that warrants this study. This includes the background, rationale, objectives, scope and delimitation.The second chapter deals with Review of Related Literature and studies of Sydney Hotel. , Third is presents the scope of the study in 5 areas. ,Fourth presents the result and discussion. Definition of Terms The following terms are defined operationally for better understanding of the reader: Hotel An establishment providing accommodations, meals, and other services for travellers and tourists. Human Resource Management –Function within an organization that focuses on recruitment of, management of, and providing direction for the people who work in the organization.Employees – A person who works for another in return for financial or other compensation. Competitiveness Ability of a company, country, or a product to compete with others. Customer- (sometimes known as a client, buyer, or purchaser) is the recipient of a good, service, product, or idea, obtained from a seller, vendor, or supplier for a monetary or other valuable consideration. Development Office is responsible for the Annual Fund campaign, capital campaign, endowment program, planned giving, and parent service.

Diversities in reproductive modes and strategies amongst various reptile species The WritePass Journal

Diversities in reproductive modes and strategies amongst various reptile species Abstract Diversities in reproductive modes and strategies amongst various reptile species AbstractIntroductionReproductive cyclesSpermatogenesis and oogenesisCopulation and FertilizationEgg shellsOvoviviparityParthenogenesisParental body conditionReproductive behaviourParental careReproductive effort as a life history traitEnergy expenditure per progenyOffspring sizeSex determinationEnvironmental factors that affect reproductionConclusionsReferencesRelated Abstract In this paper we look at reptile reproduction and the how the different factors and processes involved vary in different species. We look at: Reproductive cycles Spermatogenesis and oogenesis Copulation and Fertilization Egg shells Ovoviviparity Viviparity Parthenogenesis Parental body condition Reproductive behaviour Parental care Reproductive effort as a life history trait Energy expenditure per progeny Offspring size Sex determination Environmental factors that affect reproduction Introduction Reproduction is a hugely important aspect of conservation, and with 106 species of reptile being classed as â€Å"Critically Endangered† on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [1], every bit of knowledge could be useful for preventing a species becoming extinct. Reproduction is highly varied amongst the different species of reptile, and the three main reproductive modes are oviparity, ovoviviparity and viviparity. All the different modes and methods stem from the unique evolutionary challenges that each different species has encountered, having to adapt its reproductive processes to avoid extinction. Even amongst species that have similar reproductive modes, there are distinct variations in anatomy, physiology and behaviour, ranging from the obscure to the ridiculous, from self-fertilising, all-female lizard species, to â€Å"living fossils† that mate by cloacal apposition, due to the male’s lack of a penis. Other, less unusual, variations occur in reproductive cycles, clutch size, mating and parental behaviour. Reproductive cycles For reproduction to be successful, both the males and females need to be behaviourally and physiologically capable and ready to mate and reproduce. Reptiles tend to exhibit 3 different types of reproductive cycle : Associated cycle Dissociated cycle Continuous cycle Associated cycles are common and are frequently found in species that live in temperate zones and seasonally tropical environments, as these regions have relatively long periods suitable for reproduction . In species with an associated cycle, oogenesis and spermatogenesis are initiated simultaneously. High levels of sex hormones present tend to be associated with gamete maturation, mating and fertilization . An example is the green anole, Anolis carolinensis, from southeastern United States. In these, male and female gonads develop simultaneously in the spring, mating and egg production occur in the summer, and both male and female gonads regress in the autumn . Dissociated cycles occur in viviparous species that live in areas where there is a short breeding season, and the best time for mating may not necessarily be the best time for production of young . An example is the red-sided garter snakes, Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis. These mate after emerging from hibernation in the spring, but the gonads are not fully functional and sex steroids are at a low level. The sperm that was used in the mating was produced the previous summer and was stored in the male’s vas deferens. The female’s eggs mature during the summer, and become fertilized by the stored sperm from the spring mating [4]. This allows mating to occur at denning, when the males and females are together, and allows the snake to use the rest of its active time to mature and gestate [4, 6]. Continuous reproductive cycles allow the animal to reproduce at any point throughout the breeding season [5]. They commonly occur in species that live in tropical habitats . An example is the Amazonian Basin teiid, Neusticurus ecpleopus, where males have â€Å"mature spermatozoa in the right testis and epididymis during every month of the year†Ã‚   and so can reproduce all year round. Spermatogenesis and oogenesis Spermatogenesis in reptiles is similar to that of most other vertebrates . Spermatogenesis occurs in the reptile’s testes; however, it has been noted that reptilian germ cells are not organised into â€Å"consistent cellular associations† , and spermatids can be grouped with others from different mitotic and meiotic generations. In the six-lined racerunner, Aspidoscelis sexlineatus, spermatids from the male’s vas deferens have bent midpieces, whereas spermatids from the female’s oviducts have straight midpieces. This indicates that the final stage of maturation of the spermatids occurs in the female’s oviduct after copulation . Spermatogenesis in temperate species is limited to summer, when it is warmer and food more abundant. Therefore energy is more readily available for spermatogenesis, which is metabolically demanding . In contrast, spermatogenesis is a continuous process in tropical reptiles . Reptilian oogenesis occurs in the ovaries, which are the site of yolk deposition [12]. Vitellogenesis occurs in the maternal liver, and yolk consists of glycogen, lipoproteins and phosphorylated proteins [6]. The ova is released from the ovary surface and enters the oviduct at the ostium, the oviduct’s anterior opening [6]. Albumin deposition occurs in the oviduct and at a location which is dependent on species. Crocodilians and chelonians have albumin deposited on the ovum in the tube section of the oviduct, whereas in squamate reptiles it is deposited in the posterior part of the infundibulum . Copulation and Fertilization All reptile species have internal fertilization, but can accomplish this in different ways, depending on anatomy, environment and other factors . Sphenodontids, such as tuatara from New Zealand, first perform a conspicuous courtship, followed by copulation. They copulate by a process of cloacal apposition, as the males lack a distinctive intromittent organ ]. Some species, such as lacertid lizards   and all snakes, have a fully paired reproductive system, including intromittent organs, known as the hemipenes. They are independent and set on either side of the midline . The hemipenes develop as paired evaginations from the back of the cloaca and, when flaccid, they are inverted, but in order to mate, they fill with blood and evert . It is possible to identify species of a colubrid snake from the size, shape and weight of the hemipenes . The common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, favours the right-hand hemipenis, much like humans being lefthanded or righthanded. The right hemipenis is wider and longer than the left . Male chelonians have a penis with a single â€Å"midline groove that lies between two longitudinal ridges†. These ridges allow the penis to engorge with blood when mating. The penis is not associated with the urinary system, and used purely for reproduction . After the male reptile has ejaculated, the females of many reptilian species can store the sperm if the reproductive cycle of the male and female do not coincide . In snakes, mating can occur several months in advance and the females can store the sperm in the infundibulum; an example is the South American rattlesnake, Crotalus durissus. Female lizards typically store the sperm in the utero-vaginal transition of the oviduct, as seen in the little brown skink, Scincella lateralis . Fertilization occurs when the ova enter the oviduct and meet the sperm . Egg shells Many species of reptile are oviparous and lay eggs, which can be divided into 3 main groups: Flexible-shelled eggs with little or no calcareous layer Flexible-shelled eggs with a thick, well-developed calcareous layer Rigid-shelled eggs with a well-developed calcareous layer The structure and thickness of the shell membrane and the mineral layer varies between species . Most squamate reptiles produce eggs that have a very flexible shell ; some even lack the calcareous mineral layer. The desert iguana, Dipsosaurus dorsalis, has only a fibrous shell membrane . Although the green iguana, Iguana iguana, also is missing the calcareous layer, it still retains â€Å"isolated crystals of calcareous material among the fibres of the shell membrane† . Some squamate reptile eggs may retain the calcareous layer, as in A. carolinensis, the eggs of which have a thin calcareous crust , organised into an irregular array of plaques, â€Å"with underlying fibrous layers of the membrane being visible between the plaques† . Turtles, including chelonids, chelydrids and most emydids, produce eggs that have a flexible shell, with a well-defined calcareous layer roughly the same thickness as the shell membrane . In sea turtles, the calcareous material forms a loosely organized open matrix, whereas in emydids and chelydrids, the eggshell has calcareous material that is much more highly structured . Rigid eggshells are laid by a number of different species, including: Crocodilians Some chelonians Many species of gecko Rigid eggs have a thick, well-developed calcareous layer forming the majority of the shell . For the embryo to survive inside the egg, the shell needs to be partially permeable allowing gaseous exchange. Early in development, the first gaseous exchange occurs in the yolk sac, and later in the chorioallantois . The majority of gaseous exchange occurs after oviposition, in the air in the nest chamber. The shells can be partially permeable to water, and different species manage this in various ways. In some, the egg will contain all the water required for embryo development at oviposition, as seen in: Crocodilians Tuataras Some turtle species Most squamate reptile eggs have a low water content at oviposition, and need to absorb water from the environment for successful development of the embryo. Ovoviviparity Ovoviviparity occurs when the embryo develops inside an egg, but the egg is retained inside the mother until ready to hatch . Despite the embryo being retained, there is no well-developed placenta and the remains of a shell can be found during early embryonic development . In the spiny lizard, Sceloporus jarrovi, ovulation and fertilization occur between late November and early December, but embryonic development is suspended for 4 months in the blastoderm stage. At this point, the embryo is encased in a shell and nutrients are supplied by the egg yolk. After development continues, placental formation occurs, and the yolk plays a lesser role. â€Å"Delayed development ensures an adequate food supply for the young at parturition and eliminates embryonic development during winter when adult food intake is limited† . The viviparous lizard, Lacerta vivipara, has some populations that are ovoviviparous, and these have â€Å"substantial hormone leakage between mother and offspring and between fetuses†, and so maternal hormone levels and stress are likely to have a significant impact on the embryonic development. Stress has been shown to influence thermal regulation , which can affect sexual determination of the offspring . Viviparity A viviparous reptile will retain the embryos in the oviduct until the neonate is fully formed and is born. The majority of reptiles are oviparous, but there are around 100 species of lizard and snake that are viviparous, including: Alligator lizards, Elgaria coerulea Boa constrictor, Boa constrictor Many geckos Many species of skink Turtle-headed sea snakes, Emydocephalus ijimae As there is a large variety of viviparous reptiles, it is not surprising that they exhibit â€Å"all grades of embryonic nutrition† , ranging from an almost total dependence on the stores of egg yolk, to a total reliance on maternal nutrient transfer. The South American skink, Mabuya heathi, is viviparous and produces newly ovulated eggs that are around 1mm in diameter. The embryo obtains more than 99% of its nutrition from placental transfer from the mother. Pregnancy lasts 8-12 months and the majority of the placental nutrient provision occurs in the last 3 months of gestation. There is no agreed theory why only squamate reptiles show viviparity and none in chelonians or crocodilians. Recent theories suggest that it evolved in colder climates, as the embryo can benefit from maternal thermoregulatory behaviour, such as basking, allowing the embryo to develop faster . This does not mean that viviparity is restricted to cooler regions, and a number of viviparous species of the genus Sceloporus, exist in both warm and cool regions of varying altitude in the south-west of America and in Mexico . Parthenogenesis The majority of reptile species reproduce sexually, but a small number of species are able to reproduce parthenogenetically. Asexual reptiles often have three common features: they originate from the hybridization of two species, reproduction is from clonal inheritance and all are female . Unisexual reptiles were first noted in 1935, when it was noted that there had never been any male fox gecko, Hemidactylus garnoti, observed . Parthenogenesis has been reported in over 30 species of squamate reptile, mostly xantusiids, gekkonids, lacertids and teiids . There is only one species of snake that is parthenogenetic, the Brahminy blind snake, Ramphotyphlops braminus. Parthenogenesis reduces the costs of reproduction, as there is no energy invested in the males, and each individual female can reproduce independently. It has the disadvantage that the progeny will not easily adapt to changes in environment. The parthenogenic females produce diploid eggs from unreduced gametes, so all offspring are genetically identical to the parent . Unisexual species occur as a result of hybridization, and â€Å"each unisexual vertebrate species combines at its inception much of the genetic diversity of two different sexual species† . There are no intermediate forms, backcross genome combinations or hybrid zones that involve the parental taxa . Parthenogenetic species do not need to reproduce sexually, but sexual behaviour does still occur. Some parthenogenetic species of whiptail lizard, Cnemidophorus, have been seen to mount others in pseudocopulation . This behaviour is almost identical to that of Cnemidophori lizards that are not parthenogenetic . This occurs under crowded conditions and probably is not related to reproduction . Parental body condition Reproduction is energy-expensive for most species, but the degree varies with species and gender . â€Å"Capital breeders† rely on energy that has been stored as fats or proteins, rather than relying on energy intake . This suggests that there is a threshold amount of energy that is required to be stored before the animal is capable of reproduction . In reptiles, it is often associated with ambush predators, such as the European asp, Vipera aspis. Only females have an energy threshold that is required prior to breeding, and female V. aspis will not attempt to reproduce until â€Å"they exceed a certain minimal level of body reserves for vitellogenesis† . In males, there is no energy-dependent threshold, and in V. aspis, there is no noticeable difference in body condition between reproductive and non-reproductive males . However, it has been noted that there is a decrease in feeding behaviour in male vipers during the breeding season, as males devote more time and energy to finding a mate. Captive breeding ofSaint Croix’s anole, Anolis acutus, in the Caribbean, has shown that an increase in food intake has no effect on the reproductive effort of females, but it did cause an increase for males. Reproductive effort is calculated as 100 x gonad weight / lean body weight . Another reptile where body size and condition show no effect on reproduction and mean egg clutch size is Rodrigues lava lizard, Eurolophosaurus nanuzae. In this species, female reproduction is instead influenced by photoperiod, long-term precipitation and temperature. â€Å"Income breeders† do not store energy for reproduction; instead reproduction is fuelled by feeding . It is usually a linear relationship, where an increase in the energy available results in an increase in reproductive output . The Oriental garden lizard, Calotes versicolor, can be found in regions where there is an abundance of food. It maintains a store of abdominal body fat, which is used to provide energy for vitellogenesis for the first clutch of the season. After this, they switch to being income breeders and rely on constant daily feeding to produce enough energy for any consequent clutches of eggs. Reproductive behaviour Every reptile species has its own specific reproductive behaviour associated with mating, nesting and caring for the young. In the male T. sirtalis parietalis, the choice of female is influenced by the characteristics and attributes of the female. In garter snakes, it has been shown that larger, heavier females are more desirable to the males and attract more courtship than smaller, thinner snakes]. It can be estimated that the intensity of the mating behaviour in most male reptiles is influenced by three factors: Phenotypic aspects that influence ability to compete Potential fitness benefits from mating Intensity of competition for mating Male T. sirtalis parietalis display most courtship behaviour when alone with a female, and if there are many males all competing for the same female then they show a significant reduction in courtship behaviour . In other reptile species, the male can have displays that could consist of coloured skin patches and loud calling or unusual activities, such as in the â€Å"push-up displays† of the male side-blotched lizard, Uta stansburiana . The disadvantage of this display is a reduced endurance in the leg muscle, which may be needed to escape a predator. Male ornate crevice-dragons, Ctenophorus ornatus, have brightly coloured patches of skin on their chests. These can be used to predict the size of a male’s territory and how many females live in that territory . Ritual combat allows males to compete for dominance prior to mating, and the winner often gets the female. These battles consist of entwining with and pushing the opponent to the ground to subdue him. This is seen in a number of species, including: Australian blacksnakes, Pseudechis porphyriacus Western rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis Many colubrids, including Chironius bicarinatus   Tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus Snouted cobras will refuse to mate unless they have performed a combat ritual with another male . It is rare that the female has a choice in partners, and in C. ornatus, the females show no preference amongst different males, despite the varying intensity and colour of the male’s display patches . This could mean that the colours are for male dominance competitions rather than luring a mate. Female choice has only been conclusively proven in a few species, including Lacerta agilis and several Anolis lizards . In leopard geckos, Eublepharis macularius, the sexual and agonistic behaviour can be affected by the gonadal sex and the incubation temperature, as they both affect sex steroid hormone release . Female leopard geckos that were incubated at an intermediate temperature were less â€Å"attractive† to the male geckos than females that were incubated at warmer temperatures . Parental care The benefit of parental care over a clutch of eggs could be to increase the survival rate of the eggs. The parental care may be in the form of defending the nest site, egg brooding by muscular thermogenesis or egg attendance. Different reptile species display differing amounts of parental care. The majority do not exhibit any parental care, such as turtles. Those exhibiting parental care include: Crocodilians Long-tailed skinks, Mabuya longicaudata Skinks of the genus Eumeces Pythons Asian forest tortoise, Manouria emys   Female crocodilians give large amounts of parental care to both the eggs and the young after hatching. The females will remain close to the nest and defend it from potential predators. The male is not present when the eggs are laid but there may still be some male role in nest protection. Young Nile crocodiles, Crocodylus niloticus, vocalise while still in the egg and continue to do so after hatching . These calls lead the mother to the nest, who then opens it, help the young escape from the shell and carries the hatched young to water . After hatching, the young may also give distress calls which would stimulate defensive behaviour by the adults . It is possible that the young could be calling to each other, to synchronise hatching and ensure survival from predators . Snakes exhibiting parental care usually do so in the form of egg attendance and defensive behaviour, usually in species that are either large or venomous, as these can easily defend the nests. Pythons participate in egg brooding which keeps the eggs warm by muscular thermogenesis, but in Children’s pythons, Antaresia childreni, excessive brooding can smother the eggs, causing hypoxia due to the partially permeable shells. This can give â€Å"smaller, slower and weaker† offspring than the offspring of pythons that do not egg-brood. Reproductive effort as a life history trait The amount of effort expended in reproduction can affect the survival of the animal or can affect future reproduction, and so a trade-off is required   In squamate reptiles, survival costs often result from the â€Å"risk of death associated with a reproductive event† , an example being that a gravid female has a reduced mobility and is easily predated upon. Reproduction requires increased energy and so the animal will require a higher food intake, both before copulation and during pregnancy. The foraging or hunting may make them more at risk from predators . Reproductive costs arise because the animal devotes energy to its current reproductive bout. This energy cannot be used for growth of the animal and will not give a higher fecundity during a later reproductive bout . In squamate reptiles, survival costs are considered more important than reproductive costs, and the trade-off between present and future fecundities may not be significant for many species The counter arguments to this are that â€Å"variation in the form of trade-offs relating offspring size and survival substantially affect relationships among clutch size, relative clutch mass, and lifetime reproductive success†, and that the way in which adult mortality is simulated in the mathematical model can significantly affect the conclusions about the potential fecundity trade-offs . The environment may affect the reproductive effort, destabilising the trade-offs. An example of this would be an individual that is in a poor condition, which could result in it getting a poor territory and suffering increased mortality or reduced fecundity as a result . Both survival and reproduction costs can be seen in the tree lizard, Urosaurus ornatus in New Mexico, which lays two clutches of eggs during the summer. It has been shown that reducing the eggs in the first clutch, by surgically reducing the number of follicles, resulted in females that had a higher survival rates, and larger second clutches . Many species with short life spans tend to have multiple clutches each year and have a high clutch mass to female mass ratio. However, many species with long life spans tend to be more restrained with their reproductive activities . Energy expenditure per progeny The energy invested in an egg by the mother has an effect on the size and health of the neonate in oviparous reptiles . Females can produce either large clutches of many small eggs or small clutches of large eggs . Female veiled chameleon, Chamaeleo calyptratus produce clutches of 20-40 eggs, each weighing 1.5g . Female Fiji banded iguana, Brachylophus fasciatus are the same size but produce clutches of 3-4 eggs, each weighing 10g . In some species, the eggs are smaller than optimum due to the structural constraint of the size of the female’s pelvis. The eggs of the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta are proportional to the width of the pelvis opening, so larger females lay larger eggs . By contrast, all lizards in the genus Anolis produce only one egg in each clutch, and this egg is sized so that it is the largest that can possibly fit through the pelvis . In several species of lizard, the clutch size is fixed and â€Å"the female is not able to divide the energy invested during the single reproductive bout into more offspring†. These species include: Anolis Gekkonidae Dibamidae Some skinks The size of the egg generally increases with the size of the species, but it is not directly proportional. Larger species have smaller offspring relative to their adult body size than do small species . Some species that have variable clutch sizes include: Crocodilians Tuataras Most turtles Many squamate retiles The total number of offspring in a clutch is ultimately dependent on the number of follicles produced, the proportion of follicles that become vitellogenic and the incidence of atresia of vitellogenic follicles prior to ovulation . It has been noted that other factors can affect the size of the clutch produced. An increased environmental temperature earlier in the year has been shown to lead to earlier breeding, as well as giving an increased clutch size, possibly due to â€Å"changes in the reproductive cycle and energy expenditure† . Offspring size All offspring produced by oviparous reptiles have characteristics that are â€Å"highly dependent upon the physical conditions that the embryo experiences prior to hatching† , such as its time of hatching, performance abilities,   size, shape, behaviour and thermoregulatory preferences. There is an inverse relationship between offspring size and clutch size, but this can be influenced by maternal body size . Studies into the spiny lizard, Sceloporus virgatus, have shown that there is no correlation between egg mass and maternal body mass . This is different to most turtle species, where the maximum possible egg size is limited by the diameter of the pelvic opening . Snakes are not constrained by the pelvic girdle, and so there is a positive correlation between the width of the egg laid and the female’s mass. Eggs in the same clutch tend to give uniform-sized offspring. There are rarely overly large or small offspring, possibly because eggs have been exposed to similar hydric and thermal conditions throughout embryogenesis, and so have all developed in the same way . The phenotype of the reptile hatching out of the egg can be significantly influenced by the â€Å"thermal regimes selected by the gravid female immediately prior to laying†, as well as food availability to the gravid female. If the female lays large numbers of eggs, then the energetic and nutritional variance within the clutch is   low for reptiles, compared with birds . Sex determination In reptile species, gender can be determined either by genetics or temperature In temperature-dependent sex determination of species that lay eggs, the temperature of the eggs is controlled by the nest temperature, as with egg-brooding pythons . In viviparous species, the temperature is controlled by basking. The thermoregulatory history of viviparous reptiles can affect a number of characteristics of the offspring, including: Size Phenotype Survival Locomotor performance Behaviour At temperatures that produce females, the enzyme aromatase is induced and converts testosterone to oestradiol, which binds to oestrogen receptors, triggering feminisation. At temperatures that produce males, the enzyme 5ÃŽ ±-reductase is induced and converts testosterone to dihydrotestosterone, which binds to androgen receptors, triggering differentiation of testes . In snapping turtles, eggs developing at â€Å"female producing temperatures† have a hormonal environment in which oestradiol concentrations decline at a slower rate than those at â€Å"mixed sex temperatures† or â€Å"male producing temperatures† . There are three patterns of temperature-dependent sex determination: Males at cool temperatures, females at warm temperatures Females at cool temperatures, males at warm temperatures Females at coolest and warmest temperatures, males at intermediate temperatures The range of temperatures that can give both sexes is typically only 1 °C and varies for each species. The temperature that gives 50% of each sex is known as the â€Å"pivotal temperature† . All crocodilian species exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination . In the black caiman, Caiman latirostris, incubating the eggs at 29-31 °C gives female offspring, and incubating at 33 °C gives male offspring. At 34.5 °C, both male and female are hatched In the American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, there are three types of nesting site, which all have differing temperatures : Levee  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ß 34 °C Wet marsh  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ß 30 °C Dry marsh  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ß 34 °C on top and 30 °C at peripheries Alligators nesting in wet marshes produce nearly 100% female offspring, and females â€Å"tend to seek a temperature environment that is as close as possible to that of their own incubation† . This gives a skewed sex ratio of nearly 10 female alligators to 1 male. Temperature-dependent sex determination was originally thought to occur exclusively in species that lack sex chromosomes, but it has been shown to co-exist with genetic-dependent sex determination in some species, including geckos and some skinks Environmental factors that affect reproduction It has been shown that environmental and nest temperatures can affect the gender of the hatchlings , and variations in temperature can also affect factors such as foraging, breeding seasons and hibernation . Climate warming in China has been shown to shift the oviposition dates of the Chinese alligator, Alligator sinensis, to earlier in the year, as well as to increase the mean clutch size . Ecological events in the area inhabited by a reptile can also affect the reproduction, and human land-management can be a major factor. The desert horned lizard, Phrynosoma platyrhinos, will prefer to inhabit areas where cattle grazing has occurred, presumably due to an abundance of prey species. This would mean that there would be increased reproductive rates. In southern Texas, burning scrubland in the winter is commonplace, and can have an effect on the reptile populations. â€Å"Winter burning provides an increase in food resources and leads to increased survival of Texas horned lizards, Phrynosoma cornutum, in the second growing season after fire† . In other cases, habitat loss may have an adverse effect on the reproduction of reptiles. In Argentina, deforestation has been shown to have an effect on the Argentine boa constrictor, Boa constrictor occidentalis, particularly causing a decrease in body condition, clutch size and testicular volume . Conclusions Species variations in reptile reproduction may be quite large, with some species able to reproduce at any time throughout the year and others having dissociative reproductive cycles where the female can â€Å"store† the male’s sperm . Other aspects are typically less varied; spermatogenesis and oogenesis are similar in most species . Anatomical species differences can be seen in the structure of the male reproductive organs. Some, such as tuatara lack a penis at all , whereas snakes have two hemipenes . In testudines the penis is used solely for reproduction and is not even connected to the urinary tract . Reptilian life-history traits can vary between species and include clutch size, offspring size and mode of parity. Some reptile species are oviparous and lay eggs, such as the pit viper, Trimeresurus flavoviridis , some oviparous species are even parthenogenetic and all-female. Others are ovoviviparous, like S. jarrovi and others are viviparous and produce live young, such as M. heathi . Reproductive behaviour also varies between species and can help the reptile select a suitable mate   and parental care can help ensure the survival of the offspring, even if it is detrimental to the health of the parent . There is a distinct trade-off between reproductive effort and survival of the offspring and the parent, and different species cope with this in different ways. Some produce large clutches and have only a small proportion of these survive to adulthood whereas others have smaller clutches with a higher survival ratio . References 1. IUCN. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. 2011   10th April 2011]; Available from: iucnredlist.org. 2.   Jones, R.E. and D.O. Norris, Hormones and reproduction in fishes, amphibians, and reptiles / edited by David O. Norris and Richard E. Jones, 1987, New York : Plenum Press, c1987. 3.   Jenssen, T.A., M.B. Lovern, and J.D. Congdon, Field-Testing the Protandry-Based Mating System for the Lizard, Anolis carolinesis: Does the Model Organism Have the Right Model? Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 2001. 50(2): p. 162-172. 4. Crews, D. and R.G. William, The Ecological Physiology of a Garter Snake. (cover story). 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Rose, B., Food Intake and Reproduction in Anolis acutus. Copeia, 1982. 1982(2): p. 322-330. 60. Assis, V.c.B., et al., Reproduction and Fat Body Cycle of Eurolophosaurus nanuzae (Sauria; Tropiduridae) from a Seasonal Montane Habitat of Southeastern Brazil. Journal of Herpetology, 2003. 37(4): p. 687-694. 61. Shanbhag, B.A., Reproductive strategies in the lizard, Calotes versicolor. 62. Langkilde, T., R. Shine, and R.T. Mason, The Opportunistic Serpent: Male Garter Snakes Adjust Courtship Tactics to Mating Opportunities. Behaviour, 2003. 140(11/12): p. 1509-1526. 63. Aleksiuk, M. and P.T. Gregory, Regulation of Seasonal Mating Behavior in Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis. Copeia, 1974. 1974(3): p. 681-689. 64. Shine, R., et al., Pick on someone your own size: ontogenetic shifts in mate choice by male garter snakes result in size-assortative mating. 65. Shine, R. and P. Harlow, The transvestite serpent: Why do male garter snakes court (some) other males? 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Chiaraviglio, Landscape changes influence the reproductive behaviour of a key capital breeder snake (Boa constrictor occidentalis) in the Gran Chaco region, Argentina. Biological Conservation, 2008. 141(12): p. 3050-3058

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Computer Methods - Math Problem Example S' will be computed by finding T - S, so S' = { (1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2) } Question 2 1. a) Using the following propositions h: it is humid c: it is cloudy and d: it is raining express the following logical expressions in good English. i) (hc)r ii) (rh)c b) Assuming and S is a set of lectures and the and the predicatesL(x): x is a lecturer and A(x): x is articulate write the following sentences in symbolic form i) Larry is an articulate lecturer. ii) There is a lecturer who is not articulate. iii) Not every lecturer is articulate. What is the relationship between predicates (ii) and (iii) c) Determine the truth table for (pq)(pq) State whether this expression is contingency, a contradiction or a tautology. Solution a) i) (hc)r the atmosphere is humid cloudy and it is not raining ii) (rh)c if atmosphere is raining or humid then atmosphere is cloudy. b) (i) Larry is an articulate lecturer. L(Larry) A(Larry) (ii) There is a lecturer who is not articulate. To solve this we will use the concept of universal quantifiers $(x) Which means that a statement is true for all values of x. Now the statement in symbolic form is: "(x)[L(x) 'A(x)]' Which means that "it is not true that all the lecturers are articulate". So in this sense this predicate describes that "there are some lecturers who are not articulate" (iii) Not every lecturer is articulate. "(x)[L(x) 'A(x)]' The relationship between last two predicates is that these define same thing i.e. "Not every lecturer is articulate" does not ever means that " All the lecturer are not articulate" it could mean...And all the points that are not common in any set are placed in circles where no intersection is occurring. The relationship between last two predicates is that these define same thing i.e. "Not every lecturer is articulate" does not ever means that " All the lecturer are not articulate" it could mean that "There are some lecturers who are not articulate" so we can not use universal quantifiers for this predicate hence it means that "Not every lecture is articulate but there are some that can be articulate" so in this sense of interpretation last two predicates are same.

Enzymes Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Enzymes - Lab Report Example As stated by Onteh et al (2005), most biochemical reactions would be very slow without enzymes since enzymes increase the rate of biochemical reactions by thousands times. It is therefore important to study the environmental factors: pH and temperature and how they would affect specific enzymes. There are three characteristics of enzymes that make them function as catalysts. First enzymes increase the rate of biochemical reaction, second, they are specific to a substrate and thirdly they can be regulated to increase or reduce rate of biochemical reaction. Studies have confirmed that enzymatic activities are affected by certain factors such as enzyme concentration, pH, and temperature as well as substrate concentration. According to (), all these factors except substrate concentration have the effect of modifying the specificity nature of the enzyme there by making it incompatible with the substrate. Moreover enzymes act as catalysts because they exhibit three dimensional protein structures. As stated by Onteh et al (2005), this structure is particularly sensitive to changes in salts, pH and temperature thus a slight changes in temperatures of reaction can significantly change the rte of reaction while extreme temperatures can irreversibly alter the both the three dimensiona l structure of the enzyme thus making it impossible to catalyze a reaction. The enzymatic activity is based on the fact that enzymes are made up of certain active sites that are specific to the substrate’s active sites. As stated by Onteh et al (2005), it is on this active sites that enzymes bind to a given substrate in a geometrical fashion after which substrate undergo its inherent reaction at a much faster rate. This mode of enzymatic action is referred to as lock and key. It is important to note that enzyme does not actually react with a substrate, but brings and aligns the substrate in order for it to react with other substances. Enzymes therefore have